ÿWPC¦  –Ëq’FQ©òJQ©òÅàu¤äüÌoé"W<zlÞ‡ 0½g÷9_7ß‹+?sÒëRýi¹%cÇ}Ds®ÓŸ)ô”³•⼜Sî —i›-<þÌxÈI™ÝUŠm—S¬Þmku"Ó¡/iq¬-î,Šóš£Ú¸ÑýMJ îOu¹çTUh<Ö>Ý7¸]Òjã˜Q-žW·½ˆEõ‚ˆ ÝÌl­(3A™çpñ“ÙaÇì—K¨üßIò¾¶ ÆÃåÂØ£ßS¶ÜÀ¬E…Fû“øØA!cŸ{ë*–ÌE<²“ÖÒ±0'(Jí«ÿޤfGn¯ªøq”?ŠCGxTÓ>ê£så~¯°˜¤ŸWùfêy=Z]ÙXº8¨ýD0'ñaßÖ´ µF/(¦´ð«å+ˆ–™S÷ñùBêÇwµÍÇî/ìºþÉ‚ãP°Ä4Êøcëì‘Á‚úy™÷8þ“ÀK²ŽÈ7+hÉ ¨÷+HxÎõ[æˆWš¿Î²î$2ØÓ¹X®"B£ºhqC›¬… øÎµ*Á!?ôÂ'· ¬.f¥õ¶U!”Riö­ž9¹¬%FÀ?0ªNôZÉì/e!‘¡ÛKDºŠµÂERoÙQ(#!0UNQ %Ÿ 0(¥w@Í4 !0 m29I 0l‚ 0DîW22222222222222222222222222 B‰ ˜HP DeskJet 630C SeriesTÄ,,,,TÄ0xÖÃ9 Z‹6Times New Roman RegularX($¡¡    E  {  E  Dcj3+€À‚@«‚3|x ÿU‹ÿÀÀÀ /Ý ƒ þÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú1Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý›€Of€the€fifteen€people€reported€killed€by€police€in€Massachusetts€between€1990€and€1998,Ð ° Ðhowever,€only€one€appeared€to€have€a€psychiatric€disability.€This€was€a€man€who€hanged€himselfÏin€jail€while€on€suicide€watch.((3þÝ$¤¤Ý ƒ!ÝÝ  Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú1Ú  Úóó(%Ã$òòÚ  Ú1Ú  Úóó MÝ ƒ þÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú2Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý›€This€factor€is€arguably€unconstitutional,€since€the€Supreme€Court€has€been€extremelyÐ ° Ðclear€that€excessive€force€is€to€be€measured€by€an€objective€reasonableness€test,€whereas€thisÏfactor€measures€the€police€officerððs€subjective€mental€state. dÝ ƒ!ÝÝ  Ý›à  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àQ&AÌWhat€is€the€current€state€of€the€law€regarding€the€use€of€police€force€against€people€withÏpsychiatric€disabilities?Ìà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àSusan€StefanÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àCenter€for€Public€RepresentationÌÌI.€€€òòPolice€Killing€and€Injury€of€People€with€Psychiatric€DisabilitiesóóÐ $ t ÐÌÓÓà  àThere€is€very€little€data€collected€on€a€national€level€about€police€killing€and€injuries€ofÏpeople€with€psychiatric€disabilities.€This€problem€springs€from€the€larger€failure€to€gather€data€onÏa€national€basis€about€police€killings€and€injuries€of€civilians.€In€1994,€the€Crime€Control€ActÏrequired€the€Attorney€General€to€collect€data€about€how€many€people€are€killed€by€police€eachÏyear,€and€publish€an€annual€report.€However,€the€Department€of€Justice€has€not€issued€this€report,Ïciting€the€fact€that€police€departments€either€do€not€collect€or€are€reluctant€to€report€this€data,€andÏthey€are€currently€under€no€legal€requirement€to€do€so.€Therefore,€reports€of€police€killing€andÏinjuries€of€civilians€by€members€of€the€police€force€are€scattered€and€imprecise.€Ìà  àThe€Bureau€of€Justice€Statistics€surveyed€6,000€people€and€based€on€extrapolations€of€theÏdata,€estimated€that€about€500,000€persons€each€year€are€ð ðhit,€held,€pushed,€choked,€threatenedÏwith€a€flashlight,€threatened€or€sprayed€with€pepper€spray,€threatened€with€a€gun€or€other€form€ofÏforceðð€by€¢police.www.ojp.usdoj.gov£/¢bjs£/abstract/¢puof.htm£.€The€FBI€Uniform€Crime€ReportsÏ¢reports£€that€about€300€ð ðjustified€homicidesðð€by€police€occur€each€year,Ï¢www.fbi.gov£/¢ucr£¢/99cius.htm£,€but€does€not€record€police€killings€considered€unjustified.€€Ìà  à€In€1999,€the€National€Lawyerððs€Guild€published€the€second€edition€of€òòStolen€Lives:€killedÐ Ì&"% Ðby€law€enforcementóó€€documenting€over€2,000€people€who€died€at€the€hands€of€police€betweenÐ ¤(ô#' Ð1990€and€1998€(this€figure€included€deaths€while€in€custody€such€as€lockup€or€jail).€Although€theÏGuild€did€not€compile€the€list€for€this€purpose,€it€appears€that€a€majority€of€the€cases€describedÐ T,¤'+ Ðinvolve€people€with€psychiatric€disabilities.׃ ×Ý ƒ %ÃÝòòÚ  Ú1Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€According€to€the€Treatment€Advocacy€Center,Ð ° Ðpeople€with€psychiatric€disabilities€are€four€times€as€likely€to€die€in€encounters€with€the€police€asÏmembers€of€the€general€population.Ìà  àIn€2001€Amnesty€International€published€a€report€called€ð ðUnited€States€of€America:€Race,ÏRights€and€Police€Brutality,ðð€¢www.amnestyusa.org£/¢rightsforall£€,€which€highlights€ð ðthe€problem€ofÏpolice€using€excessive€force,€including€deadly€force,€against€mentally€ill€or€disturbed€people€whoÏcould€have€been€subdued€through€less€extreme€measures.ðð€The€report€gives€examples€throughoutÏthe€country€of€persons€with€psychiatric€disabilities€who€were€killed€by€law€enforcement€agents,Ïand€notes€that€its€requests€for€information€and€attempts€to€follow€up€were€met€with€no€responseÏfrom€most€of€the€law€enforcement€agencies€involved.ÌII.€€òòPatterns€in€Police€Killings€of€People€with€Psychiatric€DisabilitiesóóÐ  p Ѐà  àThese€sources,€€as€well€as€newspaper€reports,€case€law,€and€ongoing€litigation,€underscoreÐ øH Ðcertain€significant€patterns€in€police€killings€of€people€with€psychiatric€disabilities.€TheÏIntroduction€to€òòStolen€Livesóó€€notes€ð ð[¢m]any£€police€killings€result€from€911€calls€for€help...AÐ ¨ø Ðmother€or€father€in€a€family€crisis€had€no€expectation€when€they€dialed€911€that€their€overwroughtÏor€suicidal€child€would€be€killed€by€the€very€agency€they€called€for€help...Many€victims€had€noÏidea€they€were€being€confronted€by€law€enforcement€agents€when€plainclothes€or€undercoverÏpolice€stormed€into€their€homes€or€communities.ðð€The€Texas€Protection€and€Advocacy€agency€isÏcurrently€litigating€a€case,€òò¢Linbrugger£€v.€¢Abercia£óó,€¢Civ.Cause£€¢H01£„1288€(first€amended€complaintÐ à%0!$ Ðfiled€Oct.€16,€2001),€which€precisely€fits€this€description.€Ìà  àAnother€striking€pattern€is€that€deaths€and€injuries,€especially€shootings,€often€occur€veryÐ )à$( Ðquickly€after€police€first€appear€on€the€scene,€òò¢Hainze£€v.€Richards,óó€207€F.3d€795€(5òòthóó€Cir.Ð ° Ð2000)(shooting€occurs€within€20€seconds€of€officersðð€arrival€on€the€scene);òò€Nelson€v.€County€ofÐ ˆØ ÐWright,€óó162€F.3d€986€(8òòthóó€Cir.€1998)(unarmed€individual€beaten€on€the€head€with€a€nightstick€andÐ `° Ðshot€in€his€bedroom€within€three€minutes€of€arrival€of€the€police);€òòClem€v.€¢Corbeau£óó,€284€F.3d€543Ð 8 ˆ Ð(4òòthóó€Cir.€2002)€(plaintiff€was€pepper„sprayed€and€shot€three€times€ð ðwithin€a€short€timeðð€afterÐ  ` Ðpolice€arrival);€òòAllen€v.€Muskogeeóó,€119€F.3d€837€(10òòthóó€Cir.€1998)(shooting€took€place€within€90Ð è 8  Ðseconds€of€police€arrival€on€scene).€Ìà  àSometimes€police€try€to€physically€seize€a€weapon€from€an€emotionally€distressed€person,€Ïwhich€expert€consensus€deems€highly€inappropriate,€òòAllen€v.€Muskogeeóó,€119€F.3d€837€(10òòthóó€Cir.Ð pÀ Ð1998).€Another€common€reaction€is€to€get€massive€backup€and€surround€the€individualððs€house,Ïsometimes€for€days€and€even€weeks.€€In€many€cases,€the€appearance€and€conduct€of€the€policeÏescalates€a€situation€which€could€potentially€have€been€handled€without€violence.Ìà  àMany€shooting€deaths€appear€to€involve€suicidal€people.€There€are€two€distinct€kinds€ofÏpatterns€in€these€situations,€which€should€not€be€confused.€The€first€is€ð ðsuicide€by€cop,ðð€where€aÏsuicidal€person€points€a€weapon€(often€unloaded)€at€a€police€officer€with€the€explicit€intention€thatÏthe€police€officer€will€shoot€him€(these€situations€almost€always€involve€men).€Often€the€personÏwill€ask€or€even€beg€the€police€officer€to€shoot€him,€or€a€suicide€note€will€make€clear€what€wasÏintended.€Of€436€officer„involved€shootings€in€Los€Angeles€between€1987„1997,€10%€ofÏshootings€involved€ð ðsuicide€by€cop.ðð€By€the€last€year€of€the€study,€1997,€one€in€four€shootings€fitÏthis€description.Ìà  àHowever,€there€are€also€cases€where€police€kill€suicidal€people€who€are€not€threateningÏthem.€In€one€case,€an€individual€said€he€was€suicidal€and€took€eighteen€pills,€òòNelson€v.€County€ofÐ h+¸&* ÐWright,€óó162€F.3d€986€(8òòthóó€Cir.€1998).€They€do€involve€a€person€who€is€obviously€deeplyÐ @-(, Ðdistressed,€sometimes€with€a€weapon,€usually€either€aimed€at€himself€or€herself,€or€not€aimed€atÏanyone€in€particular,€òòAllen€v.€Muskogeeóó,€119€F.3d€837€(10òòthóó€Cir.€1998).€However,€the€presence€ofÐ ˆØ Ða€weapon€of€some€sort€(usually€less€lethal€than€a€gun)€is€an€important€component€of€many€cases€inÏwhich€people€are€killed,€and€should€not€be€downplayed.€People€are€often€shot€while€wieldingÏbrooms,€shovels,€bottles,€and€scissors.€Ìà  àAnother€common€way€that€people€die€or€are€injured€at€the€hands€of€the€police€is€byÏasphyxiation€when€they€are€being€held€down,€sometimes€in€ð ðhog„tyingðð€positions€known€to€beÏvery€dangerous.€This€happens€when€police€are€bringing€people€to€emergency€rooms€or€otherwiseÏtrying€to€subdue€an€agitated€person.€Even€the€Fifth€Circuit€has€recognized€that€hog„tying€anÏindividual€and€placing€him€face€down€may€present€a€substantial€risk€of€death€or€seriously€bodilyÏharm€under€certain€circumstances,€òòGuñ ñtiñ ññ ñitñ ñerrez€v.€City€of€San€Antonio,óó€139€F.3d€441€(5òòthóó€Cir.€1998)ñ ñ,Ð  p Ðòòñ ññ ñbut€see€Cruz€v.€City€of€Laramieóóñ ññ ñ,€239€F.3d€1183€(ñ ññ ññ ñ10ñ ññ ññ ññ ñ9ñ ññ ññ ññ ñthñ ññ ññ ñ10òòthóóñ ññ ñ€ñ ññ ñCir.€2001)ñ ññ ññ ñ(hogñ ññ ññ ññ ñóóñ ññ ñ.Ð øH Ðà  àProf.€Linda€¢Teplin£€of€Northwestern€University€has€been€working€on€a€substantial€projectÏto€document€people€with€psychiatric€disabilities€as€crime€victims.€It€is€likely€that€this€data€willÏinclude€killings€by€police,€since€the€National€Crime€Victims€Survey€is€being€used,€which€asksÏfamily€members€about€violence€suffered€by€individuals€in€the€family.€However,€the€fact€that€theÏdata€is€collected€does€not€mean€it€would€be€¢disaggregated£,€i.e.,€that€deaths€and€injuries€by€policeÏwould€be€specifically€parsed€out€and€studied.€It€would€be€helpful€for€P&As€to€write€to€Dr.€¢Teplin£Ïat€Northwestern€University€and€express€the€importance€of€doing€this.€The€results€of€this€projectÏare€due€out€in€the€fall,€and€it€is€possible€that€P&As€could€organize€around€the€publication€of€thisÏwork.€Ìà  àFor€the€most€part,€however,€the€only€way€to€collect€information€is€anecdotally,€throughÏnewspaper€searches.€These€searches€reveal€a€startlingly€high€number€of€police€killings€in€general,Ð @-(, Ðincluding€a€substantial€number€of€deaths€involving€people€with€psychiatric€disabilities.̇€ÌIII.à  àRelevant€LawÐ ° Ðà  àA.€€Constitutional€ViolationsÌThe€Supreme€Court€has€held€that€charges€related€to€€injuries€or€death€in€the€context€of€arrest,Ïinvestigatory€stops€or€other€seizures€are€properly€brought€under€the€fourth€amendment;€chargesÏrelating€to€injuries€or€deaths€occurring€in€the€attempt€to€seize€(as€in€a€high„speed€chase)€should€beÏbrought€as€fourteenth€amendment€claims,€òòCounty€of€Sacramento€v.€Lewisóó,€523€U.S.€833€(1998).Ð è 8  ÐFailure€to€protect€and€failure€to€train€are€also€fourteenth€amendment€claims.€For€the€most€recentÏSupreme€Court€standards€on€qualified€immunity€in€this€area,€see€òòSaucier€v.€Katzóó,€533€U.S.€194Ð ˜è  Ð(2001).Ìà  àà ` à1.€€Fourth€AmendmentÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àA.€Deaths€and€injuries€at€the€hands€of€the€policeÌà  àThe€case€law€in€this€area€is€better€than€might€be€expected,€although€it€varies€from€circuit€toÏcircuit.€The€landmark€case€of€òòTennessee€v.€Garneróó,€471€U.S.€1€(1985)€established€that€theÐ Ð  ÐConstitution€does€not€permit€the€use€of€deadly€force€against€a€person€who€poses€no€immediateÏthreat€to€the€officer€and€no€threat€to€others.€òòIdóó€at€11.€The€standard€for€determining€whether€policeÐ €Ð Ðofficers€used€excessive€force€is€whether€police€officers€behaved€in€an€objectively€reasonable€wayÏin€light€of€the€surrounding€facts€and€circumstances,€òòGraham€v.€Connoróó,€490€U.S.€386,€397Ð 0"€  Ð(1989).€Ìà  àWhether€police€officersðð€actions€were€reasonable€is€an€objective€inquiry,€and€each€circuitÏhas€developed€fairly€elaborate€and€quite€distinct€tests€to€determine€whether€an€officerððs€conductÏmeets€this€requirement.€For€example,€in€the€Tenth€Circuit,€the€frame€of€reference€in€decidingÏreasonableness€includes€ð ðnot€only€the€officersðð€actions€at€the€moment€that€the€threat€wasÏpresented,€but€also€may€include€their€actions€in€the€moments€leading€up€to€the€suspectððs€threat€ofÐ @-(, Ðforce,ðð€òòAllen€v.€Muskogee,€Oklahomaóó,€119€F.3d€837,€840€(10òòthóó€Cir.€1997).€The€Tenth€Circuit€hasÐ ° Ðunderscored€that€ð ðthe€reasonableness€of€[police]€actions€depends€both€on€whether€the€officersÏwere€in€danger€at€the€precise€moment€that€they€used€force€and€on€whether€[their]€own€reckless€orÏdeliberate€conduct€during€the€seizure€unreasonably€created€the€need€to€use€such€force,ðð€òòid.,Ð 8 ˆ Ðquoting€¢Sevier£€v.€City€of€Lawrence,€Kansasóó,€60€F.3d€695,€699€(10òòthóó€Cir.€1995).€The€question€isÐ  ` Ðwhether€the€officerððs€conduct€is€ð ðimmediately€connectedðð€to€the€suspectððs€threat€of€force,€òòRomeroÐ è 8  Ðv.€Board€of€County€Commissionersóó,€60€F.3d€702,€705,€n.5€(10òòthóó€Cir.€1995).€The€Ninth€Circuit€hasÐ À  Ðalso€looked€to€see€if€police€employed€any€tactic€that€ð ðneedlessly€or€unreasonably€creates€aÏdangerous€situation€necessitating€an€escalation€in€the€use€of€force,ðð€òò¢Deorle£€v.€Rutherfordóó,€272Ð pÀ ÐF.3d€1272,€1282,€n.20€(9òòthóó€Cir.€2001).Ð H˜ Ðà  àOn€the€other€hand,€the€Eighth€Circuit€looks€to€ð ðthe€severity€of€a€suspected€crime,€whetherÏthe€suspect€poses€an€immediate€danger€to€the€safety€of€the€officer€or€others,€and€whether€he€isÏactively€resisting€or€evading€arrestðð€as€well€as€ð ðthe€extent€of€any€injury€sustained€by€the€suspectððÏòòFoster€v.€Metropolitan€Airports€Commissionóó,€914€F.2d€1076€(8òòthóó€Cir.€1990),€and€ð ðstandard€policeÐ ¨ø Ðprocedures.ðð€The€ð ðextent€of€injuryðð€test,€adopted€in€its€most€stringent€form€by€the€Fifth€Circuit,Ïwhich€rejects€claims€of€excessive€force€as€a€matter€of€law€in€the€absence€of€serious€injury,€òòsee€alsoÐ X ¨ ÐSlicker€v.€Jacksonóó,€215€F.3d€1225€(11òòthóó€Cir.€2000)(de€¢minimis£€force€cannot€be€excessive€under€theÐ 0"€  ÐFourth€Amendment),€€has€been€explicitly€rejected€by€the€Ninth€Circuit.€òòHeadwaters€ForestÐ $X" ÐDefense€v.€The€County€of€Humboldtóó,€240€F.3d€1185€(9òòthóó€Cir.€2001)(rejecting€district€courtððsÐ à%0!$ Ðholding€that€pepper€spray€did€not€constitute€excessive€force€as€a€matter€of€law).€Ìà  àThe€Fourth€Circuit€recently€went€out€of€its€way€to€state€that€ð ðthe€law€is€clear€that€aÏreasonable€officer€is€sometimes€authorized€to€use€deadly€force€against€an€unarmed,€mentally€illÏperson,€i.e.,€when€the€officer€has€a€`sound€reason€to€believeðð€that€such€a€person€`poses€a€seriousÐ @-(, Ðthreat€to€his€safety€or€the€safety€of€others,ðð€òòClem€v.€¢Corbeau£óó,€284€F.3d€543,€554,€n.5€(4òòthóóÐ ° ÐCir.2002).€The€court€added,€however,€that€an€officer€could€not€claim€qualified€immunity€whenÏusing€deadly€force€to€arrest€¢assertedly£€unarmed€and€non„threatening€persons€inside€their€ownÏhomes,€òòid.Ð 8 ˆ Ðà  àóóThe€Eleventh€Circuit,€which€appears€to€have€an€affinity€for€more€complex€legal€standards,Ð  ` Тc.f.£€€òòPrado„Steinman€v.€Bushóó,€221€F.3d€1266€(11òòthóó€Cir.€2000)(reviewing€other€circuitsðð€two€andÐ è 8  Ðthree€part€tests€for€appeal€of€class€certification€and€fashioning€a€five„part€test),€created€a€sevenÏpart€standard€that€includes€the€need€for€the€application€of€force,€the€relationship€between€the€needÏand€the€amount€of€force€used,€the€extent€of€the€injury€inflicted,€whether€the€force€was€applied€inÏgood€faith€or€maliciously€and€sadistically׃ ×Ý ƒ %ÃÝòòÚ  Ú2Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×,€the€severity€of€the€crime,€the€immediacy€of€the€threat€ofÐ H˜ Ðdanger,€and€whether€the€suspect€was€resisting€arrest€or€fleeing,€òòSlicker€v.€Jacksonóó,€215€F.3d€1225,Ð  p Ð1233€(11òòthóó€Cir.€2000).€Ð øH Ðà  àInterestingly,€the€First€Circuitððs€most€recent€substantive€jurisprudence€on€excessive€forceÏinvolves€people€with€psychiatric€disabilities,€òò¢Rennie£€v.€Davis,€óó264€F.3d€86€(1òòstóó€Cir.Ð ¨ø Ð2001)(excessive€force€in€restraining€institutionalized€person);€òò€McCabe€v.€Life„Line€AmbulanceÐ €Ð ÐServiceóó,€77€F.3d€540€(1òòstóó€Cir.€1996)(woman€died€when€she€had€a€heart€attack€after€police€brokeÐ X ¨ Ðdown€her€door€and€were€trying€to€pull€her€down€the€stairs€to€bring€her€in€for€psychiatricÏexamination).€While€òò¢Rennie£óó€was€chiefly€concerned€with€failure€to€protect,€it€did€affirm€theÐ $X" Ðð ðobjective€reasonablenessðð€standard€in€excessive€force€claims,€and€reject€the€argument€that€toÏmake€out€an€excessive€force€claim,€a€plaintiff€must€show€more€than€minor€injuries.Ìà  àThe€sheer€number€of€cases€involving€police€shootings€of€unarmed€individuals,€€òòNelson€v.Ð )à$( ÐCounty€of€Wright,€óó162€F.3d€986€(8òòthóó€Cir.€1998)(unarmed€individual€in€bed€in€his€bedroom);òòÐ ° ТBraswell£€v.€¢Wiggs£óó,€1998€¢U.S.App.LEXIS£€3866€(4òòthóó€Cir.€March€5,€1998);€òòClem€v.€¢Corbeau£óó,€284Ð ˆØ ÐF.3d€543€(4òòthóó€Cir.€2002)€(plaintiff€was€pepper„sprayed€and€shot€three€times€ð ðwithin€a€short€timeððÐ `° Ðafter€police€arrival);€òò¢Deorle£€v.€Rutherford,óó€272€F.3d€1272€(9òòthóó€Cir.€2001)(police€fired€beanbagÐ 8 ˆ Ðround€into€personððs€face),€or€barely€armed€people,€òò¢Haddaway£€v.€¢Ellerbusch£óó,€996€F.2d€1211,€1993Ð  ` ÐWL€238997€(4òòthóó€Cir.€1993)(denying€qualified€immunity€to€police€who€shot€a€woman€who€wasÐ è 8  Ðð ðangryðð€and€holding€a€pair€of€scissors),€is€extremely€discouraging.€Ìà  àIn€many€cases,€police€appear€to€have€escalated€a€situation€that€could€have€been€handledÏwithout€violence.€For€example,€in€òò¢Russo£€v.€City€of€Cincinnatióó,€953€F.2d€1036€(6òòthóó€Cir.€1992€),€theÐ pÀ Ðrelatives€of€a€man€who€refused€to€return€to€a€psychiatric€facility€after€being€on€pass€called€theÏhospital€after€they€found€him€huddled€under€the€blankets€in€his€bed.€The€hospital€called€the€police.ÏWhen€police€arrived€at€the€apartment€building,€the€manððs€relatives€told€them€that€he€did€not€have€aÏgun.€When€the€police€knocked€on€the€door€and€announced€their€presence,€he€barricaded€the€door.ÏWhen€they€forced€the€door,€he€faced€them€with€two€knives€in€his€hands.€He€was€shot€with€a€¢Taser£Ïin€his€mid„section,€which€the€court€found€to€be€reasonable;€then€in€his€face,€which€was€a€harderÏquestion€for€the€court€but€still€apparently€would€have€led€to€summary€judgment€for€the€police€hadÏthe€encounter€ended€there.€However,€less€than€two€hours€later,€the€man€had€been€shot€with€aÏ¢Taser£€four€times€and€shot€with€bullets€22€times.€The€last€round€of€bullets€was€fired€after€he€hadÏfallen€crumpled€in€a€stairwell€and€dropped€the€gun.Ìà  àà ` àB.€€Police€Involvement€in€Commitment€ProceedingsÌà  àAlthough€the€Constitution€provides€special€protections€from€¢warrantless£€intrusions€toÏpeople€in€their€own€homes€from€police€intrusion,€especially€at€night,€òò¢Payton£€v.€New€Yorkóó,€445Ð h+¸&* ÐU.S.€573,€586€(1980),€in€most€states,€persons€who€are€subject€to€psychiatric€examination€can€beÐ @-(, Ðtaken€from€their€homes€by€police€officers€even€at€night.€Cases€reflect€people€dragged€naked€fromÏtheir€homes€in€the€middle€of€showers,€òòMoore€v.€Wyoming€Medical€Center,óó€825€¢F.Supp£.€1531Ð ˆØ Ð(¢D.Wyo£.€1993),€or€knocked€to€the€floor€after€emerging€from€a€shower€wearing€only€a€towel,Ïòò¢Kerman£€v.€City€of€New€Yorkóó,€261€F.3d€229€(2òòndóó€Cir.€2001),€or€dragged€from€their€beds,€òò¢Anaya£€v.Ð 8 ˆ ÐCrossroads€Managed€Care€Systemsóó,€195€F.3d€584€(10òòthóó€Cir.€1999).€€Ð  ` Ðà  àEvery€circuit€that€has€considered€the€issue€has€held€that€the€appropriate€constitutionalÏprovision€for€due€process€challenges€to€police€conduct€in€detaining€an€individual€for€the€purposeÏof€psychiatric€examination€is€the€Fourth€Amendment,òò€Pino€v.€¢Higgs£óó,€75€F.3d€1461,€1467€(10òòthóó€Cir.Ð ˜è  Ð1996).òò€¢Villanova£€v.€Abramsóó,€972€F.2d€792€(7òòthóó€Cir.€1992);€òòGlass€v.€Mayasóó,€984€F.2d€55,€58€(2òòndóóÐ pÀ ÐCir.€1993).€Ìà  àMost€circuits€have€held€that€the€standard€under€the€Fourth€Amendment€is€whether€policeÏhad€probable€cause€to€believe€that€the€person€met€commitment€requirements,€òò¢Maag£€v.€¢Wessler£óó,Ð øH Ð960€F.2d€773,€775€(9òòthóó€Cir.€1991),€òò¢Gooden£€v.€Howard€Countyóó,€917€F.2d.€1355,€1361€(4òòthóó€Cir.Ð Ð  Ð1990);€òòIn€re€Barnardóó,€455€F.2d€1370,€1373€(D.C.€Cir.€1971).€Thus,€forcible€and€¢warrantless£€entryÐ ¨ø Ðis€constitutional€if€police€reasonably€believe€that€a€person€is€imminently€suicidal,€òò¢Russo£€v.€City€ofÐ €Ð ÐCincinnatióó,€953€F.2d€1036€(6òòthóó€Cir.€1992).Ð X ¨ Ðà  àà ` à2.€€Due€Process€Clause€of€the€Fourteenth€Amendment:€Failure€to€ProtectÌà  àIn€many€cases,€police€who€kill€or€injure€persons€with€psychiatric€disabilities€are€not€actingÏalone;€they€are€accompanied€by€other€police€officers.€Courts€have€held€that€police€officers€inÏcertain€circumstances€have€a€duty€to€intervene€to€protect€individuals€from€excessive€force€by€otherÏpolice€officers,€òò¢Rennie£€v.€Davis,€óó264€F.3d€86€(1òòstóó€Cir.€2001)€(holding€the€right€exists€in€the€contextÐ )à$( Ðof€client€in€state€hospital€and€strongly€implying€it€exists€in€police€arrest€cases);€€òòNeill€v.Ð h+¸&* ТKrzeminski£óó,€839€F.2d€9,€11€(2òòndóó€Cir.€1988);€òòByrd€v.€¢Brishke£óó,€466€F.2d€6,€10€(7òòthóó€Cir.€1972).€OfÐ @-(, Ðcourse,€in€order€to€prevail€in€a€failure€to€protect€case,€the€plaintiff€must€first€establish€that€theÏpolice€treatment€was€a€violation€from€which€he€or€she€had€the€right€to€be€protected.Ìà  àIn€òò¢Rennie£óó,€the€First€Circuit€set€out€a€four€part€test€on€failure€to€protect€claims:€theÐ `° Ðdefendant€must€have€€1)€been€actually€present€at€the€scene;€2)€actually€observed€the€excessiveÏforce;€3)€been€realistically€able€to€prevent€the€use€of€excessive€force;€and€4)€had€enough€time€toÏdo€so.€òò¢Rennie£,€óó264€F.3d€at€97.€Ð è 8  ÐÓÓà  àà ` à3.€€€Due€Process€Clause€of€the€Fourteenth€Amendment:€Municipal€Liability€forÏFailure€to€Train€Police€OfficersÌÓÓÌà  àIn€1989,€the€Supreme€Court€held€that€municipalities€could€be€liable€for€failure€to€properlyÏtrain€police€officers,€òòCity€of€Canton€v.€Harrisóó€489€U.S.€378€(1989€)(municipality€only€liable€forÐ H˜ Ðfailure€to€train€officers€if€the€failure€to€train€reflects€deliberate€indifference€to€the€constitutionalÏrights€of€the€inhabitants€of€the€municipality).€Again,€different€circuits€have€different€standards€forÏliability€for€failure€to€train,€a€claim€that€has€also€come€up€under€the€Americans€with€DisabilitiesÏAct€(see€below).€€Liability€for€the€municipality€in€òòCity€of€Canton€v.€Harrisóó€can€be€shown€if€€ð ð(1)Ð ¨ø Ðthe€officers€exceeded€constitutional€limitations€on€the€use€of€force;€(2)€the€use€of€force€aroseÏunder€circumstances€that€constitute€a€usual€and€recurring€situation€with€which€police€officers€mustÏdeal;€(3)€the€inadequate€training€demonstrates€a€deliberate€indifference€on€the€part€of€the€cityÏtoward€persons€with€whom€the€police€officers€come€into€contact;€and€(4)€there€is€a€direct€causalÏlink€between€the€constitutional€deprivation€and€the€inadequate€training,ðð€òò¢Zuchel£€v.€City€andÐ à%0!$ ÐCounty€of€Denveróó,€997€F.2d€730,€734„35€(10òòthóó€Cir.€1993).€Ð ¸'#& Ðà  àThe€leading€case€in€the€Sixth€Circuit€on€failure€to€train,€òò¢Russo£€v.€City€of€Cincinnatióó,€953Ð )à$( ÐF.2d€1036€(6òòthóó€Cir.€1992),€points€to€the€importance€of€expert€testimony€in€establishing€plaintiffððsÐ h+¸&* Ðcase,€and€holds€that€simply€having€a€seven€hour€training€at€the€police€academy€is€insufficient€toÐ @-(, Ðestablish€a€defense€as€a€matter€of€law.€Ìà  àThe€Seventh€Circuit€held€that,€without€more,€a€police€departmentððs€failure€to€promulgate€aÏpolicy€on€the€use€of€force€against€people€with€obvious€emotional€disturbances€did€not€violate€theÏrights€of€a€man€shot€to€death€by€police,€or,€as€Judge€¢Posner£€put€it,€the€sheriffððs€department€had€noÏlegal€obligation€to€issue€ð ðinstructions€with€regard€to€the€use€of€force€against€people€who€appear€toÏbe€crazy,ðð€òòPena€v.€¢Leombruni£,óó€200€F.3d€1031,€1033€(7òòthóó€Cir.€1999).€€Judge€¢Posner£€conceded€thatÐ è 8  Ðð ðIf€¢Winnebago£€County€had€seen€a€rash€of€police€killings€of€crazy€people€and€it€was€wellÏunderstood€that€these€killings€could€have€been€avoided€by€the€adopted€of€measures€that€wouldÏadequately€protect€the€endangered€police,€then€the€failure€to€take€the€measures€might,€we€mayÏassume€without€having€to€decide,€manifest€deliberate€indifference€to€the€rights€of€such€people,ðð€òòid.Ð H˜ ÐóóAt€1033„34.€€Ð  p Ðà  àB.€€Federal€Statutory€ViolationsÌà  àà ` à1.€€The€Americans€with€Disabilities€Act/Section€504€Ìà  àWith€virtually€no€protest€or€adverse€commentary,€the€circuits€have€been€scaling€back€theÏscope€of€the€Americans€with€Disabilities€Act€as€it€relates€to€the€conduct€of€police€towards€disabledÏpeople.€The€Fifth€Circuit€has€asserted€that€Title€II€of€the€ADA€does€not€apply€ð ðto€an€officerððs€on„¼the„scene€responses€to€disturbancesðð€and€until€the€officer€has€ð ðsecured€the€sceneðð€and€ensured€noÏthreat€to€human€life,€òò¢Hainze£€v.€Richardsóó,€207€F.3d€795€(5òòthóó€Cir.€2000).€The€Fourth€Circuit€hasÐ $X" Ðstrongly€questioned€whether€the€ADA€applies€to€an€arrest€situation€at€all,€òòRosen€v.€MontgomeryÐ à%0!$ ÐCounty,€Marylandóó,€121€F.3d€154,€157€(4òòthóó€Cir.€1997).€The€Fifth€Circuit€in€òò¢Hainze£óó€has€alsoÐ ¸'#& Ðrejected€the€possibility,€raised€by€the€Tenth€Circuit€in€òò¢Gohier£€v.€Enrightóó,€186€F.3d€1216€(10òòthóó€Cir.Ð )à$( Ð1999),€that€the€failure€to€provide€adequate€training€to€police€officers€in€dealing€with€people€withÏpsychiatric€disabilities€could€constitute€a€violation€of€Title€II€of€the€ADA.Ð @-(, Ðà  àThere€have€been€some€successful€ADA€claims€relating€to€police€practices,€but€they€tend€toÏinvolve€deaf€people,€òò¢Chisholm£€v.€¢McNanimon£óó,€275€F.3d€315€(3òòrdóó€Cir.€2001),€although€deaf€peopleÐ ˆØ Ðhave€also€lost€ADA€police€practices€claims,€òòRosen€v.€Montgomery€County,€Marylandóó,€121€F.3dÐ `° Ð154€(4òòthóó€Cir.€1997).€Cases€involving€people€with€psychiatric€disabilities€are€scarce,€€òòsee€Barber€v.Ð 8 ˆ ТGuay£óó,€910€¢F.Supp£.€790€(¢D.Me£.€1995)(holding€claim€that€police€failed€to€provide€properÐ  ` Ðprotection€to€man€with€psychiatric€and€substance€abuse€problems€survived€motion€to€dismiss).ÌIV.€€òòBest€Practices€and€Model€ProgramsÐ À  Ðà  àóóVirtually€every€media€account€of€the€death€of€a€person€with€a€psychiatric€disability€at€theÐ ˜è  Ðhands€of€police€refers€to€the€Memphis€model,€a€program€developed€by€the€Memphis€policeÏdepartment€in€1988€after€the€shooting€death€of€a€woman€with€a€psychiatric€disability.€TheÏMemphis€model€involves€40€hours€of€training€of€selected,€volunteer€officers,€who€work€withÏmental€health€professionals,€family€members€and€people€with€psychiatric€disabilities,€and€learnÏstrategies€to€reduce€the€chance€of€violence.€One€key€strategy€is€to€ð ðslow€things€down.ðð€Police€inÏMemphis€have€spent€up€to€twenty€hours€talking€with€people€with€psychiatric€disabilities.€TheÏresults€of€this€program€include€drastically€lowered€deaths€and€injuries€(interestingly,€the€rate€ofÏdeaths€and€injuries€to€police€officers€was€reduced€more€than€the€rate€of€injuries€to€people€withÏpsychiatric€disabilities,€but€both€have€declined€dramatically)€and€an€arrest€rate€that€is€one€tenth€theÏnational€average€on€calls€associated€with€psychiatric€disabilities.€The€involvement€of€persons€withÏpsychiatric€disabilities€in€police€training€is€certainly€to€be€commended.€However,€it€is€not€clearÏwhether€more€people€are€being€routed€into€the€mental€health€system€than€was€previously€the€case,Ïwhether€people€who€might€otherwise€have€been€left€to€continue€their€lives€in€the€community€wereÏtaken€into€mental€health€treatment,€and€whether€consumers€in€Tennessee€are€as€pleased€with€theÏprogram€as€is€the€community.Ð @-(, ЇV.€€òòAdvocacy€StrategiesÐ ° Ðà  àóóThere€are€many€advocacy€strategies€to€pursue€in€this€area,€which€can€be€organized€in€theÐ ˆØ Ðfollowing€framework:Ìà  àA.€€Gathering€InformationÌà  àThe€national€data€regarding€police„involved€deaths€of€persons€with€psychiatric€disabilitiesÏneeds€to€be€gathered.€Congress€has€passed€a€statute€requiring€this€data€to€be€collected,€and€itÏneeds€to€pressure€the€Department€of€Justice€to€fulfill€the€Congressional€mandate.€The€position€ofÏthe€Department€of€Justice€that€the€states€do€not€keep€the€data€is€insufficient€as€a€reason€to€preventÏthe€data€from€being€gathered,€since€it€can€be€gathered€as€part€of€the€National€Crime€VictimizationÏSurvey.€A€sample€letter€is€available€from€the€Center€for€Public€Representation.Ìà  àThe€P&A€should€seek€to€use€its€authority€to€gather€information€regarding€police„involvedÏdeaths€of€persons€with€psychiatric€disabilities.€This€should€include€deaths,€and€if€possible,€injuries,Ïassociated€with€police€in€emergency€rooms.€In€addition,€the€P&A€may€be€able€to€ally€itself€withÏthe€state€chapter€of€the€National€Alliance€for€the€Mentally€Ill€on€this€issue.Ìà  àA€survey€can€be€done€of€P&A€clients€about€their€experiences€with€police€officers,€whichÏcan€identify€helpful€officers€as€well€as€problematic€officers.€Helpful€officers€can€receiveÏcommendations€and€awards€from€the€disability€community,€and€be€asked€about€what€techniquesÏthey€use€(often,€they€are€simply€sensitive€and€empathic€people).€The€Protection€and€AdvocacyÏagency€can€work€with€local€police€departments,€both€to€identify€good€practices€and€good€officers,Ïand€help€to€focus€on€problematic€policies€and€offer€preventive€strategies.€A€survey€is€availableÏfrom€the€Center€for€Public€Representation.Ìà  àA€letter€can€be€sent€from€the€P&A€to€Prof.€Linda€¢Teplin£€urging€her€to€¢disaggregate£Ïinformation€about€police„involved€injuries€and€deaths€in€her€study€of€people€with€psychiatricÐ @-(, Ðdisabilities€as€victims€of€violence.€A€sample€letter€to€Dr.€¢Teplin£€is€available€from€the€Center€forÏPublic€Representation.Ìà  àB.€Influencing€Public€OpinionÌà  àThe€public€still€sees€people€with€psychiatric€disabilities€as€dangerous,€rather€than€as€theÏvictims€of€crime€and€violence.€It€is€crucially€important€that€the€facts„„people€with€psychiatricÏdisabilities€are€more€often€victims€of€violence€than€perpetrators„„be€conveyed€and€repeated,€in€asÏmany€different€contexts€as€possible.€This€can€include€testimony€before€State€Legislatures,€lettersÏto€the€editor€and€editorials,€presentations€at€service€clubs,€and,€of€course,€¢trainings£.€In€addition,€itÏwould€be€helpful€to€organize€with€the€African„American€community;€many€of€the€victims€in€òòStolenÐ pÀ ÐLivesóó€were€both€psychiatrically€disabled€and€African„American.Ð H˜ Ðà  àC.€€Changing€Police€Treatment€of€People€with€Psychiatric€DisabilitiesÌà  àPolice€are€rarely€disciplined€in€the€wake€of€a€shooting,€even€shooting€of€an€unarmedÏindividual.€Protection€and€Advocacy€agencies€can€ally€with€€groups€such€as€the€National€LawyerððsÏGuild,€the€NAACP€and€others€in€spotlighting€police€department€response€to€these€killings.€Ìà  àIn€addition,€the€P&A€can€and€should€conduct€careful€investigations€of€its€own.€TheÏCalifornia€P&Aððs€ð ðReport€of€an€Investigation€into€the€Deaths€of€Charles€¢Vaughn£€Sr.€on€May€19,Ï1998€and€Marvin€Noble€on€July€16,€1998,ðð€published€in€May€2000,€is€a€model€in€this€regard.€Ìà  àClients€with€psychiatric€disabilities€should€be€encouraged€to€report€complaints€of€policeÏabuse€to€the€Civil€Rights€Division€of€the€Department€of€Justice,€which€under€President€ClintonÏtook€these€complaints€quite€seriously€(especially€in€areas€like€Los€Angeles€which€were€alreadyÏunder€investigation€by€the€Civil€Rights€Division).Ìà  àTraining€of€police€is€a€standard€response,€but€is€better€when€done€through€the€auspices€ofÏthe€District€Attorneyððs€Office,€which€police€officers€take€more€seriously€than€¢trainings£€done€byÐ @-(, Ðadvocacy€groups.€There€are€many€training€modules€for€police€officers€available,€but€many€of€themÏfocus€on€relatively€unhelpful€topics€(going€into€depth€on€schizophrenia,€bipolar€disorder€andÏdepression€as€biological€diseases)€rather€than€emphasizing€helpful,€concrete€techniques€inÏencounters€with€people€with€psychiatric€disabilities.€Training€developed€by€the€Office€of€MentalÏHealth€in€New€York€and€the€New€York€State€Division€of€Criminal€Justice€Services€includesÏhelpful€role„playing.€Further€information€on€this€program€is€available€from€the€Center€for€PublicÏRepresentation€or€the€Office€of€Mental€Health€in€New€York.ÌVI.€€ConclusionÌà  àMuch€more€attention€has€been€paid€to€the€ð ð¢criminalization£ðð€of€people€with€psychiatricÏdisabilities€than€to€police„involved€deaths€and€injuries.€ñì ñBut€deaths€ñì ññí ññì ñiñì ññí ññî ñand€injuries€are€a€majorÏproblem,€as€is€the€less€visible€trauma€caused€by€many€police€encounters.€Most€of€these€deaths€andÏinjuries€follow€a€predictable€patternñî ññð ñ€and€are€preveñð ñññ ññð ñtnñð ñññ ññò ñntable.€ñò ññï ññî ñs€ñî ññî ñañî ññï ññî ññå ñ¢¢ñå ññî ññó ñTheñó ññî ññå ñ££ñå ññî ññó ñ€law€in€cases€alleging€excessive€force€is€relatively€sympathetic€(compared€to€many€other€areas€ñë ñinvolvingñë ññë ñ€rights).ñë ññó ñ€Protection€and€Advocacy€agencies€ñô ñcanÏtake€a€number€of€concrete€and€relatively€simple€steps€to€become€involved€with€this€issue,€and€areÏinvited€to€contact€the€Center€for€Public€Representation€for€sample€materials€referred€to€œabove.ñô ññõ ñrarelyÏhaveÏmuchÏinteractionÏwithÏlocalÏpoliceÏforces€orÏdistrictÏattorneyððsÏoffices.€ñõ ñ›Ìà  à€